At a Ks ke Aff a AMERICAN JOURNAL
+ oa gies: Bos : fT
fy
OF
SCIENCE AND ARTS.
CONDUCTED BY
PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B, SILLIMAN, Je., AND <
JAMES D. DANA,
IN CONNECTION WITH
PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, ; PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, f DR. WALDO I. BURNETT, or BOSTON, % DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK.
° oO
SECOND SERIES.
VOL. XVI.“ NOVEMBER, 1863.
WITH A MAP.
NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. NEW YORK: G6. P. PUTNAM
Printed by B. L. Hamzzn—Printer to Yale Co
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XVI.
NUMBER XLVI.
Art. I. Biography of Berzelius; by Prof. H. Ros Il. geen a pie sttie of Remains of lear pried Pp by
Ill. A ‘Considértion of soins of the phassiiens wea Lan ‘ und, and their application in the Construction of Buildings designed especially for Musical Effect; by J. B. UpHam, M.D.,
IV. On the discovery of some Fossil Reptilian Remains, and a Land-shell in the interior of an erect fossil-tree in the Coal measures of Nova Scotia, with remarks on the Origin of oal-fields, ge the time Sayiger for their formation ; by
Sir C. Lyert, F.R.S, V.P.G.S
V. Reéxamination of American Micocali Part II. sak amaaline : Loxoclase; Danbury Feldspars; Haddam Albite; Green- wood Mica; Biotite ; Margarodite; Chesterlite Tale ; Rho- dophyllite ; "Cummingtonite ; Hydrous Anthophyllite ; Mon- rolite ; Ozarkite ; Dysyntribite ; Gibbsite; Emerald Nickel ; by Fin cage J. Lawrence Suir, M.D. and a is
Brus VI. New xed a mnetbod of determining the Atwaties in Min- erals: Part 1I—Conversion of the Su!phates into Chlorids :
Qualitative Determination of the mixed Alkalies: Separation of the Alkaline Chlorids from each other, with a more direct rela of obtaining them Abe silicates not aun gee in Acids ; y Prof. J. Lawrence Su VIL. Gna a method of pric ce an Observatory ona Dwelling. hou . JoHN BE Vill. On the Cetechiaesesiee of some Mavine Jovertebrain; ; by M. A. De QuaTREFAGES, IX. Contributions to Meteo oluge aeen Rew ts of Meteoro-
Page. 1
logical Observations, made at St. Martin, a Jesus, Va,
East, for 1852 ; by Cuartes Smatiwoop, M.D., X. Mr. Blake’s Reply to Mr. Hendrick’s pepe of his article on the Flow of Elastic Fluids,
XI. Contributions to Mineralogy ; by Dr. ‘F A. GEN een XII. Review of the Geological Report on Westin: Tow and Mi eet and incidentally ie a ees of a —.
ritory,
a CONTENTS.
XIII. On the aca new element, ‘ane by Prof. J. Law- RENCE SM 95 XIV. On a Isomorphism af Sphene and Budlase’: by Jans
Al 96 XV. Characters of Tetraclea, a new genus of Verbenaces by
Asa Gray, M.D., 97
,
SCIENTIFIC -INTELLIGENCE.
Correspondencez—Correspondence of M. J. Nicklés : epee Light, 99, ek ae 100. —Quinidine: Racemic acid, 101.—Metacetic acid, guste Lau —Re-
{ ¥ | magnets, 110—QOn Inductive Electric machines and on a simple means of increasin ‘ — effects, Ill, —On we chemical reac ‘tions important to health in populous cities,
—On esigns by means of the Vapor “— dine,
13 —On the application off ety acids to illumination: Different memoirs ig rches
m the presence of boracic acid in mineral waters: On Phycite, by M. Lamy the domnpelanion of the air confined in vegetable mould, 114.
Chemistry and Physics.—Speeific heat of gases and vapors, 115.—On the decomposition of 4 éertain organic acids: New organic radicals containing oy Bhatt a new series of organic bodies which contain metals, 11 Nes on Ozone,
Geolo, Inu f the Delta of the Mississippi, 120. te da ees sur Ja cham Géslouique ne asteche Provinces de l’Espagne, par MM. pe VerNerviIL et CoLLoms, age d'une description de quelques Ossements Fossiles io Te errain Mivetue, par M. P. AUL Gervais, 124.—Palwontology of New York; by James Haut, 1
Botany and Zoology —F on Cestrica ; an Herborizing re for the Young Botanists of Chester County, sit y Wu oy play: ada LL.D.: Fun gi Prt reigg og og
ont} “ie ep ities of the Mee finns sslaee form the basis of © —
all v lean Membranes: OFMEISTER, On the Development of Zostera: Horsfield, lante Ja oe w Rariores, ete. ; elab. J.J. Bennetr et R. Brown ei err Spe-
es Filicum, being Descriptions 0 of all known Ferns: N. B, War p, F.R.S., &c., On the
Growth of Pines in rte apart Cases: 132.—Infusoria of California : facie Re-
searches of Prof. AGas
Aen a. —New Planets, (24) (25) 136.—(26), 137.—First Comet of 1853: Second Comet 1
1852, by Professor S. P. L rop, M.D., ples able Clo et Tooth of Ge- talodus Ohioensis, by Pro M. Sarrorp: Products of the Swedish Mines in 1849 Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science : he Application of Photography to the Representation of Microscopic Objects, 142.—On aire uced by the disintegrated surfaces of crystals, by Sir Davi - neigh Borealis: Me- — ric stone Lixna: American Ass oe e Advanwoiibleh ¢ of Science, 48— —
Obituary. —Death of Dr. Lewis C. Beck, 14 Bibliography. —A History of the Fishes of po mag ain by Davip Humpnreys Storer,
M.D., A.A-S. pes Principles of = d Physiological Chemistry, trans- ted by Dana eL Breep, M.D., 150.—A nal of ‘Scientific Decora, or Year- A
SS, Wilkes, U.S.N, ie James D, Dana — Pico oe a psa het he oman ae of Arts
la
]
by James D. Dana: Report ‘on’ the Crnss ea of the E ee Expedition arr ai, i
{
t
CONTENTS. Vv
NUMBER XLVII.
age. Art. XVI. On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, illustrating the Geo- : graphical Distribution of Marine animals; by James D. a 153 XVII. Contributions to Mineralogy; by Dr. F. A. Genta, 167 hi Hassler’s Experiments on e Expansion of Merde at vari- s temperatures ; by ‘ XANDER, E'sq., - 170 XIX. Diograslons of Berzelius ; by Prof H. Rose, - erate Lk") XX. piste: BG yas of Minerals; by N. S. Mannos - 186 XXI. Ont able number of the Native Indian “Population of Brit ish maces by Capt. J. H. Lerroy, R. A., 189 XXII. On the hie and ia abies Volume of some } Min- ‘ eral species T..S. Hox 203 XXII. Theor aia ui iene “Of the Bxpéiidivurd of Peat in Tot-air. ngine 5 y Prof. F. A. P. Barnarp, 18 XXIV. be the occurrence of i age og Carbonate of Liaatie. “num; by 1 228 RXV, The Normal of Curvature ; a Prof. Gronee Citron Wutiock, 231 XXVI. Proposed Modification ar the construction of the Ercsen Engine, with a view to increase its available pre ; by er Faepericx A. p. Ox 232
ae Note on the Besant of tients umbellaa, ‘Nutt.
y Asa Gra XXVIil eer and Abstracts in Anatomy uf Physiology : by Dr. Watpo |. Burner 251 2 Correspondence o ave A 8 Nintike\—-Oleniical Researches n Dyeing, 268.—Pisiculture : Over-heated Steam applied ’ ai the Carbonizing of Wood, 270.—Expériments on the
t Chloroformization, 272.—Composition of matters extracte from fertile soils by water: Photography, 273.—Theory of the Pile and the Aurora Borealis: Manufacture of Sugar— sugar extracted from molasses, 274.—Manufacture of caustic baryta from the carbonate, 276.—Caoutchouc industry, 277. Locomotion by compressed air, 278.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Ge A Geo-
caca? | Map of the United States and the British Peotin es of North grote io etc., by Joves Ma ne Poy Sct of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom: pra des progrés de la Géologie de 1534 a 185), par "Arcuiac: Zeitschritt der geologischen ceabtiactantes Jahrbuch der kaiserlien kdnigliehen L rebe ai Reichs.
anstalt, 279.—Ge rs ye Wanderungen in Gebiete der = orddstli vo Carn Burtica: Die Braunkohle in ner Mark Brandeburg: Halurgische G
tirbach der Ge Ea yoo Dr. UMAR: pean s Lethea € Deutsehlands Petrefaeten, von ©. G. GieseL: Fauna der voberelk preker Gi BEL: » ie et Paléontol “ Francaises ae Saeth + aed
ption of the remains of extinct
290—Desen _ Pesshabeores hte der Vorwelt, 4 W. Sm - Territory, etc:, by Jos. Leiny, M.D. : Memoir of the extinet
.
.
val CONTENTS.
Jos. Lerpy, M. wie Die Nepeiner oes der Grauwacken formation in Sachsen, ete., von H. B. ‘Ger INITZ, 281.— mes gee Flora von Wildshuth in Cusseta 5, Neu aifgefundene’ Sanvier-Ueher ca aus den Siig gost Schie es Jurakalkes, r. ANDREAS ss Remo sete, per - Pronet he Kreidebildungen v va Tex n Dr. Ferp. Roemer: Sys- silurien du centre de la Russie par abe “Basrande, 282.—Fossil Seariaa Sam ipa Prince Edward’s Island: New South Wales, 283.
Zoology.—Neue Denkschriften der nlp og Schweizischen Gesellschaft, etc. rias de‘la real Academia de Cienci _ Madrid : Catalogue of the Cabi net of rierara j des
History of the State of New Yor 2 —Bulletin de la Soc. imp. Natura “he de Moscow: Jahresb. des Naturwiss. Vorcinw’ in Halle : thon gers Kais. der Wissenschaften : Wur preeneenbocts naturhist. Jahreshefte : Ze mig ift fiir wissen schaftliche Zoologie : De homme et des races Lea ag par. RD: e0- graphische Verbreitung der Thiers: v on L. K.S ARD : Histoire ‘Naturelle d es Mol- lusques Ptéropodes, par MM. Rane and estcaret Bilder aiis dem ‘J jasldlion: von ARL Voer, 284.—Entwicklungsgeschichte des Meerschweinchens, von Tr. L. W. Biscuorr Phy soba ce gon che Reise nach Mossambique, vo ETERS, 285.—On the Osteol the song Fe Hippopotamus, Jo ; » 286 Museum Heineanum, rt. JEAN ANIS: Journal fiir Ornithologie, von Dr. JEAN Capanis: Anale ae ~aalletaent os m provinciarum occidental 1 lium im- peril rossici, auctor . Gorski: Monographia Pueumonopomorum viventium, auc- tore L. Preirrer: “Wosteaions of the Birds of California, Texas, Oregon : einer Migoceanhie der Lycene als Beitrag ziir spe es ngskunde mit Abbildungen nach der Natur, von Notes on the Classification of the Carabide:
of the United States, by Dr. eres L. Le Conse 287.
Astronomy.—Shooting Stars of August 10, 1853, 288,—Themis : Phocea : Proserpine : Third Comet of 1853, 289.
Miscellaneous Intelligence —American Association for the Advancement of Science, 239.— Note, by Prof. pS to p. 224, on the effect of Moisture on the Heat developed by Compression of Air: Note by Prof. BaRNarD, to p. 225, on the Heat required to convert Water into Steam, poe —Note to p. 226, ee the Theoretic Determination of the Expen-
1 : t
Lieut. M. F. Maury, 294 —Were the Ancient Egyptians acquaint nted vith Nitric Aci by THornton J. Herapats, Es rey 296.—California Academy of Natural Scienc Aurora seen at Perryville, on the 24th of May, 1853, by Prof HEELER: Great Gold Nugget : acest College, Philadelphia : y Notice to Naturalists, 298.
por gif in the ayer of rain ranaig by Pres, EDWARD Hivchaoce: ‘Prac b ARY LLE: og i
Sciences of Philadelphia, by A. L. HeermMann, M. —Rural Essays, by A. J. Downina, edited by George WILLIAM Curtis: Sixty-sixth Annual Report of the Regents of the University of the State of New se Illustrated Record of the Industry of all Nations, edited by B. Sinutman, Jr.: The ora a ea edited by Wa. J. Tenney, Stn nea Medical Recorder, edited by A. P. Mer
M.D. and ela 1.D,: Annals of Science, conducted by ‘sate roa - Sartu, A.M.: Report of the Sinidlooendei of the Census for December, 1852: An- nals of Pe Lyceum of N nine History of New York,
List of Works, 304
NUMBER XLYVIII.
Page. Art. XXX. Biography of Berzelius ; by Prof. H. Ross, - - 305 XXXI. On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, lustratiog: the Geo- graphical Distribution of Marine animals; by James D. Dax, 314 XXXII. The Coal Field of Bristol Cowaly and of Rhode Isla XXXIIL. Rese Booger E. Hircncock arches on Peston Applications of f Magnetic An by M. J. Nicki
eae ce ee ee Se ee
CONTENTS. rit
XXXIV. On the Passivity of Nickel and Cobalt; by M. J. Nicxzs, ‘347 XXXV. Method of taking Daguerreotype Pictures for the Stereo- scope, simultaneously, upon the same pee with an ORI,
Camera; by Prof. F. A. P. Barnarp, 348 XXXVI. Theoretic yaaa of the 'Expenditare of Heat
in the Hot-air Eng reer saith by Prof.
Freperick A. P. ene 351
XXXVII. On the Deiaetdation of Coral Formations; by ‘Saieos ‘D. Dana, 357
XXXVI. Resanihtnaiion of Awehton Mineral: Part Hi—Dian. burite ; Carrollite ; Thalite ; Hudsonite ; Jenkinsite.; ; Lazu- lite; Kyanite ; Elzeolite ; Spodumene ; Petalite: by J. Law-
RENCE Situ and GeorceE J. Brusu, Ph.B., 365
XXXIX. 1. Rano of Nitric Acid on the Chlorids of Potessisiit and Sodium.—2. Action of Oxalic ene . the Nitrates and Chlorids of the Pee with a ready method of converting them into the Carbona he ais of Oxalic Acid enabling Zine to decompose Water; by Prof. J. Lawrence Situ, M.D., 373
XL. On the Blood. pia Kolding Cells, and thelr relation to
. l. Burnett, M.D., 375
XLI. Extraordinary Fishes from California, constituting a new
amil cB rorceabogs by L. Acassiz,
XLII. On nge of Ocean Temperature that would attend a change i in one mae of the African and South American Con- tinents; by James D. Dana, 391
XLIII. Reviews and Raconde in Anatomy sing Physiology ; by Watpo I. Burnett 393
ie gpa ome of M. J. Nroxiaa, Reproduction at Cot
on fr yroxyline: Phenomena of Con monia in Rain-water: Bronze for the heading of Ships : Pnoaee ys: Other papers read before the Academy, a —-Galva : Machine with Vapor of Ether, 408.—Loc motion “ik the Vapor of Chloroform, 409. sie rizes Proposed, 410.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Physics.—New Bases containing Palladium, 410.— Anthranilic and Benzoic Acids : New Compounds of Iridium: On Zirconia, 412. —On Did ymium, 413.—Regen- eration of Hippuric Acid: On the Alkaloids of the Quinquinas, 4 ransformation
a L* 2 “4 S = Q i) g i na ~ =) —- o ~ i] Q @ 8 = f~¥) oO > 9g.
wf 2 EE,
a=) o re | © i) = a a oO i] 2 cs — 2
and Paleontology. eit = Vuikanischen Gesteine Be a und Island, und ihre submarine Umbildun n W. Sartorius ing Wa HAUSEN, 418. 8.—List on Geology and Palooussiony, 419, 420—On the Pugtuction n oO! British Islands, by fore VERT, 420.—Reports of Profe ice Henry D. Rogers,on Wheat- ley, , Brookdale and Charleston Mines, Phenixville, Chester Co., Pennsylvania, 422,
Botany.—Harvey : Nereis Boreali-Americana; or insta en toa deb rsige: so the vot Alge of North America, 422.—Plante Fr emontianee ;
Viii CONTENTS.
ted by Col. J. C. Fremont, in California, by Jonn Torrey, F.L.S., 424, -~On Darling- tonia California, a New Seger cae oe ca California, by Joun Tor a Fas0-2 rrapage saenea on the Bat of Linneus, by Joan Torrey, F.LS.: Pla nite
Living Animals, ay y ‘JosEPH Lerpy, M.D.: Exotic Pe: from the Schweinitzian Her- barium, principally from Surinam, revised iby t the | . J. Berxexey, M.A., F.LS., and Rev. M. A. Curtis, ak 426.— of y.—Adrien de Jussieu, 426.— M. Achille Richard: Dr. Pres! : Dr. Wale ‘an
Flea — Bip of Works on sapeaage? F 427.—Lectures on Surgical Pathology, a at e
f England, by James Paget, F.R.S., &c. ‘onomy.—New Comet IV of 1853: Proserpine : Second Comet of 1853, 430.—Third
Astron Comet of 1853: Shooting Stars of August 9-10th 1853, 431.
iscellaneous Intelligence. —Note to Prof. Barnard’s paper on oe ee of Heat in the
Miscel Hot-air Engi the Author, 431.—The Conical Condenser, a serge Appendage,
by Lieut. ih B. Hunt , 432. zy taiiecs s of | . accep hical Department of the Library of Congress, by Lieut. E. B, Hunt, 436 the Compuaiie and Figuring of the Spec- . e :
e me
sBy, 438.—On the employment of the piers Sine Dieese of Calcium as a means of preventing and destroying the Oidium Tuckeri, or G Betas np by Dr. Ast TLE y P. Price, ¥Riet the Interior
= o aS
by M. H. Boye; On the Popular Theory of we Arctic Basin. Is it true ? * Dr. Scorgssy, 446.—On the Consolidation of Cora I"Rormations : Daguerreotypes for the Stereoscope: British Association: Cli Sep Arago: H E. Stric tland, 447,— Annual Report of the Superintendant of the Coast Survey : Twentieth Annual Report of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society, 1852 : The Book of N a Rich ScHoEeDLeER, Ph.D.: The Ethnographical Library, conducted by Epwin pre RIs, Esq., 450 —Contributions to est Aa Rota Geography of South Eastern Asia an ee by G. W. Earx: Report of Progress of the Geological Survey of Illinois, ee G. NoRwoop: a Honilboak of the Dageteiderz ye; by S. D. Humpurey, 451.
List of Works, 451. Index, 452.
ERRATA.
5.1. from top, for Trommet, read Tom
P. 280 is pod i 1. sf bottom, for ancien yo aarescogli, read Melampyrum, Pedicularis, P. 289, 5 1. toa botkiee, for passed, read eae é
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[SECOND SERIES,] !
és Arr. 1_— Biography of Berzelius ; by Prof. H. Roser of Berlin.*
On the 7th of August, in the memorable year 1848, Berzetius died at Stockholm, after long and painful suffering, in his 69th
year Distinguished men, who, during a long and active career, have enjoyed a great reputation, may have attained their celebrity in ooh ways. a teacher draws round him by his theoretical and prac-
extraordinary talent for illustration, he re nders even the most
ifficult branches of science accessible to the inquiring public, or by an able combination of known facts, he opens the way to the most fruitful ideas, such a man may contribute to the general diffusion of a scientific spirit, and otherwise exercise the most beneficial influence. But if at the end of his career, we examine whether a void has been left by his removal, ie will often be found that science would have preserved, upon the whole, the same boundary if he had not labored for it. It Bit be that his influ- ence upon science, although considerable, has been only indirect.
On the contrary, there are other men of special endowments, Dossesetgs in a high degree the talent for research, who oe ze
* Delivered at the Public Meeting of the Academie der Wissénschaften, in on 8d July, 1851, and cited from the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, ve i October, 1852. 3
Suoonn Suntes, Vol a" No, 46,—duly, 1858. 1 ee :
2 Biography of Berzelius.
with marvellous penetration where to direct their investigations, and frequently, by discovering a few apparently very simple facts, clear up our views in a surprising manner, overthrow long- established prejudices, and advance science with gigantic strides. It is rarely that men of the latter kind follow up and complete their scientific conquests. They generally content themselves with having shewn, by their discoveries, in what direction the study of details is to be pursued, and, after having pointed out the course and the method of filling up the gaps, resign the exe- cution of the work to others. — h aman was Humphry Davy. There are none who will not acknowledge that at the commencement of this century,
found united in one man in so high a degree of perfection as they were in him. In this respect, and in chemical science at least he has been exceeded by none.
Since the death of Berzelius several biographies of him have appeared, especially in Sweden. All tell how in his childhood and youth, he had to struggle with care and poverty,—how he
ut in an academic eulogium, it is before all things appropriate to point out the scientific merits of the deceased, to shew how
Biography of Berzelius. 3
much science has been extended by him, and how great the loss it has suffered in his death.
It was exactly at the commencement of this century that Ber- zelius first appeared as an independent investigator. Volta had just constructed the electrical pile which bears his name, and its astonishing effects occupied in a high degree the attention of the men of science of the time. The unexpected chemical phe- nomena produced by the pile excited the interest of chemists fully as much as that of physicists, and induced them to multi ply experiments with this remarkable apparatus. ‘lhe first in- vestigation made public by Berzelius was upon the effects of the electrical pile upon saline solutions. In the year 1803, there appeared in Gehlen’s Neu. Allg. Journal der Chemie an im- portant paper on this subject, the joint production of Berzelius ~ and Hisinger. However manifold and remarkable were the re- sults which had hitherto been obtained with the Voltaic pile with regard to chemical decomposition, still no one had succeeded in discovering the laws of these phenomena. Berzelius was the fist to find the thread which could lead with certainty through this labyrinth of complicated phenomena. He shewed that sub-
between the constituents of a chemical compound were only relative, and that one and the same body may behave as a base
ceeded in disproving many erroneous views as to the effects of
transmission of substances from one vessel into another ; but in his memoir he does not make any mention of the views of Ber- zelius, which correspond with his own ; and Pfaff, who translated
vy’s paper for Gehlen’s Journal, felt it necessary to remark that three years previously Berzelius and Hisinger had made known
age ze us. sie a ne
Aye eee De eee Eee aa ; R44 Biography of Berzelius.
all the fundamental principles which Davy now brought forward as entirely new. #4 z
In 1807, Davy received the prize of 3000 frances, offered by the Emperor Napoleon for the best set of experiments made dur- ing that year on the subject of galvanism. The merits of Ber- zelius and Hisinger were unnoticed,
3 b thas % Biography of Berzelius. 5
batteries of Daniell and Grove, he had constructed one of zinc, copper, and two liquids, in sucha manner that the zinc was not attacked by the liquid in contact with it, while the copper was briskly oxydized by the other. If now the oxydation of one of the metals were the canse of the electricity, the copper would have been positive, and the zinc negative; consequently the poles of the pile would be reversed. Before the circuit was closed, the copper was violently oxydized and dissolved ; but, when the poles were connected, this action ceased immediately, and metallic cop- per was precipitated from the liquid upon the copper plate. This experiment rendered it obvious to Berzelius that chemical activity could not be the cause of the electrical phenomena; for the
Hisinger, who had a particular partiality for the chemical part of mineralogy, and to whom, as a geologist and mineralogist, Swe- den owes so much, Berzelius early directed his attention to the quantitative analysis of minerals. He candidly admitted in after years, that in the first instance, when the law of combination in simple definite proportions was not yet established, he did this chiefly on Hisinger’s account. But the very first result of an in- vestigation of this kind, carried on in conjunction with Hisinger, was of the most brilliant kind: it was the discovery of a new metal, Cerium, during the year 1803, in the so-called tungsten of Bastnas, near Riddarhyttan in Westmanland.
It must be admitted that the discovery of a new metal is often the result of mere chance. But it is not every chemist who is
tigations and long experience. F'or this reason new element- ary bodies are not easily discovered by young chemists, not even by those of high talent. The discovery of cerium, which Ber- zelius made in his twenty-third year, shows therefore the great and rare sagacity which he displayed even in his first inves- tigations.
Klaproth investigated the tungsten of Bastnas simultaneously with Berzelius and Hisinger, and declared that the oxyd which
6 Biography of Berzelius.
it contained in combination with silica was new. But he over- looked its metallic nature, and although he obtained it of a red- dish-yellow color, regarded it as an earth, which he called Ochroit earth. The investigation of Berzelius and Hisinger was evi- dently carried out with more precaution than that of Klaproth. Not only did the latter overlook the partial solubility of the oxyd in solutions of alkaline carbonates, he did not even remark the
Mineralkérper,” which did not appear until 1807, that he men- tioned the evolution of oxy-muriatic gas on treating the ignited oxyd with muriatic acid, still, however, without attaching to the fact any great weight. Berzelius and Hisinger, on the contrary, justly considered this of very special importance, as unequivo- cally pointing out two very different stages of oxydation, at that time one of the principal means of distinguishing between me- tallic oxyds and earths, which were then regarded as simple bodies. Gehlen also directed attention to this point in a remark upon the paper of Berzelius and Hisinger. Further, he was for- tunate enough to accomplish, with the aid of Hjelm, the reduc- tion of the oxyd, and to obtain the metal in an isolated, although not in a melted state. hen Berzelius subsequently undertook the determination of the equivalent weights of almost all the elementary bodies by means of a long series of experiments, he resigned the estimation of the equivalent of cerium to Hisinger, and did not occupy him- self more specially with this metal. Thus probably the discov- ery of the oxyds of two other metals, accomplished by Mosander, thirty-six years after that of cerium, escaped him. Besides the examination of cerite, Berzelius undertook at that time the investigation of other new and interesting minerals.
had to earn his livelihood, was that of physician. He naturally sought in this profession for those occupations especially in which
was quite natural that as physician he should be induced to take up the study of animal chemistry. What he achieved in
Biography of Berzelius. z
this branch of chemistry, and indeed within a short space of time, is extraordinary, and opened as it were an entirely new field in this science.
Before Berzelius’s time, animal chemistry was treated nearly in the same manner as that of inorganic bodies; the constituents of the animal body were arranged in certain classes, ‘and described merely as objects of chemical decomposition, perhaps with a few general remarks as to their functions in animal life. ‘This mode of treatment is, in a scientific point of view, totally valueless, Berzelius endeavored to combine anatomical with chemical inves- tigations, so as to tend to a common end, in order in this to give to experiments a higher scientific connection, and to direct the attention of the chemist to the physiological aspect of the subject.
In this spirit he investigated almost all parts of the animal body, solids and fluids, certainly only qualitatively, as at the com- mencement of this century there did not exist the most remote knowledge of those methods for the quantitative elementary
and solely because their investigations were undertaken from a one-sided point of view, and without any high scientific purpose. Beside Berzelius, the only chemist of that time who entered upon these investigations from a physiological point of view, was Fourcroy ; but his results vary the most widely from those of Berzelius, since from scattered, uncertain, superficial, and often wholly incorrect observations, he drew general and extended in- ferences, although certainly in a very ingenious manner, and by his attractive illustration led the way to the greatest errors. In order to recognize the high superiority of Berzelius over Four- croy in this respect, it is only necessary to compare the investiga- tions of the latter upon blood, especially its red coloring matter, With that instituted by Berzelius on the same subject only a short time afterwards. rzelius made known his investigations in animal chemistry in the form of lectures, the first of which appeared in 1806; the second in 1808. Besides this, the most important examinations of separate animal substances appeared in the Afhandlingar 4 Fysik, Kemi och Mineralogi, and in Gehlen’s Journal. He gave @ masterly review of his labors in animal chemistry, compared with what was previously known on the subject, in a speech de-
8 Biography of Berzelius.
livered upon the occasion of his vacating the presidentship of the Stockholm Academy of Sciences. It is there the custom annu- ally to select from among the members of the Academy, a new president, who, in vacating his office, must deliver a scientific dissertation, which is printed. This is, indeed, frequently the
the greatest importance. They were on the reduction of silica, and the composition of cast iron.
Ithough Berzelius had succeeded in obtaining the metals of the alkaline earths in combination with mercury, by means of the voltaic pile, he was unable to separate in a similar manner the
ical of silica from its oxygen. In order, however, to satisfy himself that silica had a composition similar to the earths, he in- stituted a series of interesting experiments for the purpose of uniting the radical of silica with metals, especially iron, by mix- ing iron filings with carbon and silica, and exposing the whole to
e contained, together with silicium, carbon. He then found ap- proximately the quantity of oxygen present in silica, by esti- mating the quantity of iron and carbon, the latter certainly by a somewhat unsafe method. ‘The remark which he makes at the close of his paper, published in 1810, is well worthy of notice. After having described his numerous experiments on the quantity of oxygen in silica, which throughout had not given very closely corresponding results, he concludes with these words: “I con-
the present time to perceive either theoretical or practical advan- tage to be gained by this accuracy.” A few years later he would not have expressed himself in this manner.
nother investigation important for this period related to the composition of crude iron. At the commencement of the pres-
acids, less hydrogen was obtained than with an equal weight of malleable iron. Berzelius proved that in this case an oleaginous hydrocarbon was produced, and shewed, with the greatest cer-
* - . . * a directly, by dissolving the iron through the agency of chlorid of
Biography of Berzelius. 9
with the results obtained; since he could not rely upon the cor- tectness of the method which he had employed for the quanti- tative determination of carbon or of magnesia, whose presence in the solution of crude iron he had proved. On this account, he published his investigation under the modest title of Attempt to Analyze Crude Iron.
10 Biography of Berzelius.
pirical facts which had hitherto borne the name of chemistry, the universal law now first developed itself, according to which bod- ies enter into chemical combination.
Berzelius is not, properly speaking, the first discoverer of the doctrine of chemical proportions. It generally happens in all sci- ences that great laws are not suddenly discovered by one investi- gator, but are gradually recognized.*
* * * * * *
During the previous century chemists who had occupied them- selves with the phenomena of the so-called chemical affinity, made several observations which incontrovertibly proved that there was a strict uniformity and order in the chemical combina- tions of bodies. These men were especially Bergmann in Sweden, Kirwan in Dublin, Wenzel in Dresden, and above all, Richter in Berlin. The latter two had indeed come to the conclusion, that acids and alkaline bodies must combine in definite proportions, because in the double decomposition of neutral salts neutral pro- ducts are formed.
y to attain to such accurate analyses that the calculated results of the decomposition of two neutral salts could correspond with ex- riment.
Lavoisier gave a new direction to the whole science. The at- tack upon the phlogistic theory, and the establishment of the an- tiphlogistic system, took undivided possession of all thinking minds. None had time to occupy themselves with any other than the qualitative changes which bodies underwent by their mutual decomposition. It was also necessary that Latoinieve theory should have gained a complete ascendency before the doc- trine of simple chemical proportions could be fully recognized and appreciated.
* Owing to the indistinctness of the MS,, al i i want of it, however, does not affect the eae etr ee saa” Sar See aieoet
Biography of Berzelius. 11
stances, particularly the power of crystallizing or of cohering in any form, in consequence of which compounds could separate from a solution, as precipitates or crystals; or else owing to the expansion taking place on passing into the gaseous state, by which they removed themselves from the sphere of action of solid or fluid bodies. The most important law established by Berthollet was, however, that of the so-called chemical mass, ac- cording to which the deficiency of a body in chemical affinity may be replaced or .compensated for by increasing its quantity: and it is indisputable that this law, although it has latterly been more and more forgotten, is perfectly correct.
The first of these principles, established by Berthollet, viz: that all chemical combinations are possible between a certain maximum and minimum, and in indefinite proportions, was im- mediately disputed by Proust, who endeavored, by means of many ingenious experiments, to shew that every chemical com- bination takes place in definite proportions, and that between it and the nearest allied combination there is a certain interval within which there is no intermediate stage.
Berthollet’s views were at that time apparently supported by the numerous erroneous representations of the composition of the most important compounds. Likewise the experiments which he made, or caused to be instituted, in order to disprove the as- sertions of Proust were far from being adequate. Proust’s exper-
led him to enter upon this gigantic investigation. After the dis- covery of oxygen in the alkalies, the conjecture that all saline bases, and consequently ammonia, contained this element, was not unnatural. This view received a still greater probability by the discovery of the ammoniacal amalgam.
Berzelius now commenced a series of investigations for the
of chlorids, found the quantity of acid in the salt, and by the oss the quantity of oxygen in the base itself. On subjecting ammonia to the same process he was not able either to isolate the ammoniacal metal, or to combine it with the Mercury in such a quantity as to obtain a result. £ i
Me Biography of Berzelius.
expels equal quantities of phlogiston from the different metals ; or to express the same in the language of the antiphlogistic sys- tem, that when a certain quantity of any acid combines with different metallic oxyds, forming neutral salts, the oxyds must contain an equal and invariable quantity of oxygen.
But in order to be able to apply this law of Bergmann with perfect certainty, unassailable proofs of its perfect accuracy were necessary. Those which Richter had given could not be re- garded as at all admissible. Berzelius now compared his analy- ses of potash, soda, and lime with Bucholz’s analysis of oxyd of silver, and that made by my father of oxyd of mercury; and he found in fact that the quantity of these bases which sat- urate the same quantity of hydrochloric acid, forming a neutral salt, contained, with very slight deviations, the same quantity of oxygen. But when he came to examine other metallic oxyds and combinations with muriatic acids, the results obtained were so much at variance (perhaps on account of many erroneous
myself justified in mentioning the following cireum- stance, although somewhat of a personal character. Berzelius
Biography of Berzelius. 13
mutually decomposing each other, while basing his calculations upon the data of incorrect analysis, was often nearly abandoning the perplexing subject, but was induced by a paper of my father, upon the relation of the constituents of neutral muriates (pub- lished by him in 1806, a year before his death, in the 6th volume of “ Gehlen’s neues Allg. Journal,” p. 22), to persevere. My father had, in the first place, by at least one example, practi- cally demonstrated, that by the decomposition of two neutral salts, muriate of baryta and sulphate of soda, according to his own analysis of them, and of the two salts proceeding from the decomposition, and by calculation, results were obtained, which proved that the neutrality could not be disturbed.
Berzelius now considered it necessary, in order to attain to cer- tain results, to investigate anew the composition of the most im- portant compounds with extreme care, repeating the analyses several times before venturing to employ their results in the ex- tension of his views. e remarked very justly, that, on account of the unchangeable neutrality of two salts decomposing each other, it was only necessary to analyze, with suflicient accuracy, all salts formed for example by sulphuric acid, and all those whose
ase is baryta, in order to be able, by a simple rule of three, to calculate the composition ofsall other salts, because these two Series contain the three numbers which are necessary in order to find the fourth. rzelius now ventured upon an herculean task, which he prosecuted for many years with the most indefatigable industry, and for a long time without any help. e re-examined every important chemical compound with the most admirable care and exactness. In this work, especially, he displayed rare talent, se- lecting, with the most extraordinary acuteness, those bodies Which were the best adapted for investigation. He published an account of his labors, or rather the commencement of them in the third part of the “ Afhandlingar i F'ysik, Kemi och Miner- alogi” for 1810. ‘They first appeared in German in 1811, in Gilbert's Annalen.
In these investigations, theory was constantly the touch-stone employed to test the accuracy of the results, to attain which he was frequently obliged to vary his experiments almost endlessly.
€ was, in the first instance, compelled to improve the analytical methods, and to abandon many of those in use at that time, and by this means he was gradually led to those views which are now received by all chemists.
he most distinguishing characteristic of Berzelius’s mode of Working was, that with the most insignificant means at his com- mand, he still succeeded in obtaining the most brilliant results. ‘hen he entered upon his great investigation, he was 1n posses- Sion of very small pecuniary means, he was in a condition almost
14 Biography of Berzelius.
of want, and without public support, which, considering the is0- lated situation of Sweden, must have been especially depressing and unfavorable. The difficulties against which he had then to
rzelius, in the first place, altered the methods of Klaproth, _ which at that time were the best, in so tar especially that he em- ployed considerably smaller quantities. The usual quantity ope- rated upon by Klaproth and other chemists was rather more than five grammes; Berzelius never took more than two or three grammes, generally less, determining this quantity, of course, ac- cording to the nature of the constituents of the body to be exam- ined. By employing more delicate balances, which Berzelius first introduced into use in chemistry, and by adequate care, re-
ad the good fortune during my youth to assist the merito- rious Klaproth in his chemical investigations, though only during f 1816, when his labors were
to each other as the respective accuracy of their results.
The spirit-lamp, with double draught, was likewise introduced into use by Berzelins. Formerly the ignition even of the smal- lest quantities of a substance was effected over a charcoal fire. He was also the first to make use of the small platinum crucible,
Biography of Berzelius. 15
in which, substances could be both ignited and weighed, and by the use of which considerably greater accuracy was insured, and ‘the absorption of moisture as far as possible prevented. The fil- ter containing the precipitate was always burnt when possible, and the ignited substance weighed together with the ash of the pa- per; a saving of time and trouble for which we are indebted to Mr. d’Ohsson, who worked in Berzelius’s laboratory. It was on this account that a paper was employed which left after combus- tion but a very minute quantity of ash, and which was made o excellent quality in Sweden, because there are springs there rising through granite, the water of which is almost free from fixed sub- stances. ‘The general introduction of this Swedish paper, to the manufacture of which Berzelius paid great attention, is also owing to him. :
The use of appropriate funnels, &c., as well as an immense
have contributed to render the results of analyses much more exact, and have much simplified the methods themselves.
Berzelius had moreover—and it is no slight merit—transferred chemical investigations in which charcoal fires were not neces- sary, from the damp kitchen, or cellar-like cold laboratory, into the comfortable dwelling-room. The present generation have scarcely an idea of the discomforts which were then connected with chemical researches. It certainly required no little scien- tific enthusiasm, during the severe winters of our northern cli- mate, to remain in a place where there was the greatest absence of comfort, and which was even prejudicial to the health. But it was at that time thought that a laboratory with a stone floor was indispensably necessary even for trifling chemical operations.
The small caoutchouc tubes, by means of which experiments with gases may be so easily and safely conducted, and which, indeed, alone render many inquiries possible, were early employed by Berzelius in his investigations. Whoever has in former times attempted the collection of a gas will remember the unpleasant- hess of working with brittle glass tubes, and how easily an experi- ment failed from the slightest want of care. It was Berzelius who first rendered glass tubes, as it were, flexible, and they could then be employed in constructing the most complicated apparatus. _ Possessing only the most scanty means, he was led to all these improvements by actual necessity. He took advantage of every Opportunity to perfect himself in mechanical art. He was master of glass-blowing, which he learned from a travelling Italian; he was familiar with turning, glass-grinding, and other arts. He made the greater part of his own instruments; and notwithstand- ing the isolated position of his native country, was thus enabled to construct those ingenious forms of apparatus by means of Which he so infinitely advanced the study of ch :
?
16 F. V. Greene on the composition of remains of Mammalia.
Art. Il.—Chemical Investigation of Remains of Fossil Mam- mala; by Francis V. Greene, M.D.
Ar the request of Dr. F. A. Genth, I have made in his labora- tory a chemical investigation of several fossil remains, collected by D. D.-Owen, M.D., in his late survey of Nebraska Territory ; the specimens having been kindly furnished me by Dr. Jos. Leidy, from the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences. e specimens consisted of a portion of bone from a Titanotherium,